Hawaiis Volcanic Hot Spot

Hawaiis Volcanic Hot Spot Under the Hawaiian Islands, there is a volcanic â€Å"hot spot,† a hole in the Earth’s crust that allows lava to surface and layer. Over millions of years, these layers form mountains of volcanic rock that eventually break the surface of the Pacific Ocean, forming islands. As the Pacific Plate very slowly moves across the hot spot, new islands are formed. It took 80 million years to create the current chain of Hawaiian islands. Discovering the Hot Spot In 1963, John Tuzo Wilson, a Canadian geophysicist, introduced a contentious theory. He hypothesized there was a hot spot under the Hawaiian Islands - a mantle plume of concentrated geothermal heat that melted rock and rose up as magma through fractures under the Earth’s crust. At the time they were introduced, Wilson’s ideas were very controversial and many dubious geologists were not accepting theories of plate tectonics or hot spots. Some researchers thought that volcanic areas were only in the middle of plates and not at subduction zones. However, Dr. Wilson’s hot spot hypothesis helped to solidify the plate tectonics argument. He provided evidence that the Pacific Plate has been slowly drifting over a deep-seated hot spot for 70 million years, leaving behind the Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Seamount Chain of more than 80 extinct, dormant, and active volcanoes. Wilson’s Evidence Wilson worked diligently to find evidence and tested volcanic rock samples from each volcanic island in the Hawaiian Islands. He found that the oldest weathered and eroded rocks on a geological time scale were on Kauai, the northernmost island, and that rocks on the islands were gradually younger as he went south. The youngest rocks were on the southernmost Big Island of Hawaii, which is actively erupting today. The ages of the Hawaiian Islands gradually decrease as seen in the list below: Niihau and Kauai (5.6 - 3.8 million years old).Oahu (3.4 - 2.2 million years old)Molokai (1.8 - 1.3 million years old)Maui (1.3 - 0.8 years old)Big Island of Hawaii (less than 0.7 million years old) and it is still expanding. The Pacific Plate Conveys the Hawaiian Islands Wilson’s research proved that the Pacific Plate has been moving and carrying the Hawaiian Islands northwest off the hot spot. It moves at a rate of four inches a year. The volcanoes are conveyed away from the stationary hot spot; thus, as they move farther away they become older and more eroded and their elevation decreases. Interestingly, about 47 million years ago, the path of the Pacific Plate changed direction from north to northwest. The reason for this is unknown, but it might have been because of India colliding with Asia at approximately the same time. The Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Seamount Chain Geologists now know the ages of the undersea volcanoes of the Pacific. In the farthest northwest reaches of the chain, the underwater Emperor Seamounts (extinct volcanoes) are between 35-85 million years old and they are highly eroded. These submersed volcanoes, peaks, and islands extend 3,728 miles (6,000 kilometers) from the Loihi Seamount near the Big Island of Hawaii, all the way to the Aleutian Ridge in the northwest Pacific. The oldest seamount, Meiji, is 75-80 million years old, whereas the Hawaiian Islands are the youngest volcanoes - and a very small part of this vast chain. Right Under the Hot-Spot: Hawaii’s Big Island Volcanoes At this very moment, the Pacific Plate is moving over a localized source of heat energy, namely, the stationary hot spot, so active calderas continually flow and erupt periodically on the Big Island of Hawaii. The Big Island has five volcanoes that are connected together – Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. The northwestern part of the Big Island ceased erupting 120,000 years ago, whereas Mauna Kea, the volcano in the southwest part of the Big Island erupted only 4,000 years ago. Hualalai had its last eruption in 1801. Land is continually being added to the Big Island of Hawai’i because lava that flows from its shield volcanoes is deposited on the surface. Mauna Loa, the largest volcano on Earth, is the most massive mountain in the world because it occupies an area of 19,000 cubic miles (79,195.5 cubic km). It rises 56,000 feet (17,069 m), which is 27,000 feet (8,229.6 km) higher than Mount Everest. It is also one of the world’s most active volcanoes having erupted 15 times since 1900. Its most recent eruptions were in 1975 (for one day) and in 1984 (for three weeks). It could erupt again at any time. Since Europeans arrived, Kilauea has erupted 62 times and after it erupted in 1983 it stayed active. It is the Big Island’s youngest volcano, in the shield forming stage, and it erupts from its large caldera (bowl-shaped depression) or from its rift zones (gaps or fissures). Magma from the Earth’s mantle rises to a reservoir about one-half to three miles under Kilauea’s summit, and pressure builds up in the magma reservoir. Kilauea releases sulfur dioxide from vents and craters - and lava flows onto the island and into the sea. South of Hawaii, about 21.8 mi (35 km) off the coast of the Big Island, the youngest submarine volcano, Loihi, is rising from the sea floor. It last erupted in 1996, which is very recent in geological history. It is actively venting hydrothermal fluids from its summit and rift zones. Rising up about 10,000 feet above the ocean floor to within 3,000 feet of the water surface, Loihi is in the submarine, pre-shield stage. In accordance with the hot spot theory, if it continues to grow, it might be the next Hawaiian Island in the chain. The Evolution of a Hawaiian Volcano Wilson’s findings and theories have increased knowledge about the genesis and life cycle of hot spot volcanoes and plate tectonics. This has helped to guide contemporary scientists and future exploration. It is now known, that the heat of the Hawaiian hot spot creates fluid molten rock that consists of liquefied rock, dissolved gas, crystals, and bubbles. It originates deep below the earth in the asthenosphere, which is viscous, semi-solid and pressurized with heat. There are huge tectonic plates or slabs that glide over this plastic-like asthenosphere. Due to the geothermal hot spot energy, the magma or molten rock (which is not as dense as the surrounding rocks), rises through fractures from under the crust. The magma rises and pushes its way through the tectonic plate of the lithosphere (the rigid, rocky, outer crust), and it erupts on the ocean floor to create a seamount or underwater volcanic mountain. The seamount or volcano erupts under the sea for hundreds of thousands of years and then the volcano rises above the sea level. A large amount of lava is added to the pile, making a volcanic cone that eventually sticks out above the floor of the ocean - and a new island is created. The volcano keeps growing until the Pacific Plate carries it away from the hot spot. Then the volcanic eruptions cease to erupt because there is no longer a lava supply. The extinct volcano then erodes to become an island atoll and then a coral atoll (ring shaped reef). As it continues to sink and erode, it becomes a seamount or guyot, a flat underwater tablemount, no longer seen above the water’s surface. Summary Overall, John Tuzo Wilson provided some concrete evidence and deeper insight into the geological processes above and below the surface of the Earth. His hot spot theory, derived from studies of the Hawaiian Islands, is now accepted, and it helps people understand some ever-changing elements of volcanism and plate tectonics. Hawaii’s undersea hot spot is the impetus for dynamic eruptions, leaving behind rocky remnants that continually enlarge the island chain. While older seamounts are declining, younger volcanoes are erupting, and new stretches of lava land is forming.

The Theory of Relativity and the Speed of Light

The Theory of Relativity and the Speed of Light One commonly known fact in physics is that you cannot move faster than the speed of light. While thats basically true, its also an over-simplification. Under the theory of relativity, there are actually three ways that objects can move: At the speed of lightSlower than the speed of lightFaster than the speed of light Moving at the Speed of Light One of the key insights that Albert Einstein used to develop his theory of relativity was that light in a vacuum always moves at the same speed. The particles of light, or  photons, therefore move at the speed of light. This is the only speed at which photons can move. They cant ever speed up or slow down. (Note: Photons do change speed when they pass through different materials. This is how refraction occurs, but its the photons absolute speed in a vacuum that cannot change.) In fact, all of the bosons move at the speed of light, so far as we can tell. Slower Than the Speed of Light The next major set of particles (so far as we know, all of the ones that arent bosons) move slower than the speed of light. Relativity tells us that it is physically impossible to ever accelerate these particles fast enough to reach the speed of light. Why is this? It actually amounts to some basic mathematical concepts. Since these objects contain mass, relativity tells us that the equation kinetic energy of the object, based on its velocity, is determined by the equation: Ek m0(ÃŽ ³ - 1)c2Ek m0c2 / square root of (1 - v2/c2) - m0c2 Theres a lot going on in the above equation, so lets unpack those variables: ÃŽ ³ is the Lorentz factor, which is a scale factor that shows up repeatedly in relativity. It indicates the change in different quantities, such as mass, length, and time, when objects are moving. Since ÃŽ ³ 1 / / square root of (1 - v2/c2), this is what causes the different look of the two equations shown.m0 is the rest mass of the object, obtained when it has a velocity of 0 in a given frame of reference.c is the speed of light in free space.v is the velocity at which the object is moving. The relativistic effects are only noticeably significant for very high values of v, which is why these effects could be ignored for long before Einstein came along. Notice the denominator which contains the variable v (for velocity). As the velocity gets closer and closer to the speed of light (c), that v2/c2 term will get closer and closer to 1 ... which means that the value of the denominator (the square root of 1 - v2/c2) will get closer and closer to 0. As the denominator gets smaller, the energy itself gets larger and larger, approaching infinity. Therefore, when you try to accelerate a particle nearly to the speed of light, it takes more and more energy to do it. Actually accelerating to the speed of light itself would take an infinite amount of energy, which is impossible. By this reasoning, no particle that is moving slower than the speed of light can ever reach the speed of light (or, by extension, go faster than the speed of light). Faster Than the Speed of Light So what about if we did have a particle that moves faster than the speed of light. Is that even possible? Strictly speaking, it is possible. Such particles, called tachyons, have shown up in some theoretical models, but they almost always end up being removed because they represent a fundamental instability in the model. To date, we have no experimental evidence to indicate that tachyons do exist. If a tachyon did exist, it would always move faster than the speed of light. Using the same reasoning as in the case of slower-than-light particles, you can prove that it would take an infinite amount of energy to slow a tachyon down to light speed. The difference is that, in this case, you end up with the v-term being slightly greater than one, which means the number in the square root is a negative. This results in an imaginary number, and its not even conceptually clear what having an imaginary energy would really mean. (No, this is not dark energy.) Faster Than Slow Light As I mentioned earlier, when light goes from a vacuum into another material, it slows down. It is possible that a charged particle, such as an electron, can enter a material with sufficient force to move faster than light within that material. (The speed of light within a given material is called the phase velocity of light in that medium.) In this case, the charged particle emits a form of electromagnetic radiation thats become called Cherenkov radiation. The Confirmed Exception There is one way around the speed of light restriction. This restriction only applies to objects that are moving through spacetime, but its possible for spacetime itself to expand at a rate such that objects within it are separating faster than the speed of light. As an imperfect example, think about two rafts floating down a river at a constant speed. The river forks into two branches, with one raft floating down each of the branches. Though the rafts themselves are each always moving at the same speed, they are moving faster in relation to each other because of the relative flow of the river itself. In this example, the river itself is spacetime. Under the current cosmological model, the distant reaches of the universe is expanding at speeds faster than the speed of light. In the early universe, our universe was expanding at this rate, as well. Still, within any specific region of spacetime, the speed limitations imposed by relativity do hold. One Possible Exception One final point worth mentioning is a hypothetical idea put forth called variable speed of light (VSL) cosmology, which suggests that the speed of light itself has changed over time. This is an extremely controversial theory and theres little direct experimental evidence to support it. Mostly, the theory has been put forward because it has the potential to solve certain problems in the evolution of the early universe without resorting to inflation theory.

Activity Based Costing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Activity Based Costing - Essay Example More than that, it traces back the cost to the activities and processes (Heisinger, 2010). Above all, use of activity based costing (ABC) method especially in companies with diverse centers and distribution channels has proven to be suitable. Unlike other methods, the activity based costing (ABC) method ensures that there exists a direct correlation between the related overhead costs and the occurrence of an activity (Chang, 2010). Without doubt, the marketing manager decision to use the activity based costing (ABC) method, as a way of critically analyzing the customer support and distribution costs is more suitable, as compared to taking the store with the highest contribution margin ratio.... Without doubt, the marketing manager decision to use the activity based costing (ABC) method, as a way of critically analyzing the customer support and distribution costs is more suitable, as compared to taking the store with the highest contribution margin ratio. Workings Cost allocation based on revenue Total revenue is $ 500,000 1) Department Stores = $150,000/ $500,000 = 0.3 2) Specialty Shops = $100,000/ 500,000 = 0.2 3) Gift Shops = $250,000/500,000 = 0.5 (Bragg, 2002) i) Variable production cost is $150,000 Department Stores = $150,000 * 0.3= $45,000 Specialty Shops = $150,000 * 0.2 = $ 30,000 Gift Shops = $150,000 * 0.5 = $ 75,000 ii) Production Overhead $120,000 Department Stores = $120,000 * 0.3= $36,000 Specialty Shops = $120,000 * 0.2 = $ 24,000 Gift Shops = $120,000 * 0.5 = $ 60,000 iii) Selling & Distribution Costs $180,000 Department Stores = $180,000 * 0.3= $54,000 Specialty Shops = $180,000 * 0.2 = $ 36,000 Gift Shops = $180,000 * 0.5 = $ 90,000 Activity Based Costin g (ABC). Total costs/No of orders places $40,000 10 90 900 Cost drive is the number of orders placed Department Stores = $40,000 * 10/1000= $400 Specialty Shops = $40,000 * 90/1000 = $ 3,600 Gift Shops = $40,000 * 900/1000 = $ 36,000 (Finkler, Ward & Baker, 2007) Total costs/No of sales calls 80,000 5 195 800 Cost drive is the number of sales calls Department Stores = $80,000 * 5/1000= $400 Specialty Shops = $80,000 * 195/1000 = $ 15,600 Gift Shops = $80,000 * 800/1000 = $ 64,000 Total costs/No of shipments 60,000 20 480 1,000 Department Stores = $60,000 * 20/1500= $800 Specialty Shops = $60,000 * 480/1500 = $ 19,200 Gift Shops = $60,000 * 1000/1500 = $ 40,000 Allocation of other costs is based on the

Art History Writing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Art History Writing - Assignment Example These paintings were oil based and mostly portrait. The influence of religion on the approach used by the artist of the era in the presentation of their ideas is evident from the type of pictures and paintings produced. Both the sculptures and painting of the era comprised of beautiful figures moving gracefully in multi-figure compositions conveying humanity and the perfection of God. Despite the growing influence of the Italian renaissance humanism, it was not able to influence artists outside Italy (Kleiner 589). Therefore, artists in Europe were not influenced by the humanism approach employed in the art from Italy. Northern painters travelled to Rome and are known as Romanists because they were influenced by the works of Michelangelo and exhibited the stylistic tendencies of mannerism. The northern renaissance in northern Europe was not influenced by the Italian renaissance but was closely linked with the protestant reformation. The series of internal and external conflicts between the Roman Catholic Church and the protestant groups had a lasting effect on the type of art developed in northern Europe. In contrast to the 1500 to 1600 art, the 1700 t0 1800 art was comprised of the concept of enlightenment. The frivolous paintings of Fragonard and the politically charged moralizing images of David influenced art (Kleiner 583). The leadership of the king of France who ruled by divine light and the development of the enlightenment thinkers indicates a change from the 1600 art. The art of the era was defined by Neo-classicism, which included the support of the revolution. It exhibited movement from the roman art that proceeded the era, which contributed significantly to the characteristics of the art depicted by Mona Lisa painting, and other paintings related to Christianity. In fact, the roman art was based on religion and the perfection of God and the role of spirituality in changing the behaviors of people with the focus being on the nature of

Chinese Culture Essay -- Cultural Identity Essays

Throughout China's encased history it has developed much differently than western parts of the world. Chinese culture varies greatly compared to ours. These great differences between eastern culture and western culture make China a very interesting place. Some of the vast differences include literature, social structure, and government. The greatest difference is Chinese philosophy and way of thinking. China has developed a strict system of tradition that has given China great advantages and disadvantages. This is shown in Chinese literature. Tradition in China is a set of unwritten laws. This is why China turned its eyes from the outside world and looked in. China found everything it needed in Tradition (4). The strong traditions and customs play probably the greatest factor in the life of a Chinese person. This strict philosophy influences marriage, children, family, and duty in life. Marriage is much different and has different levels of companionship. One man may have many wives and or concubines. The status of these wives and concubines are very important. The lower you are on the husband's list the lower you were treated (1). When in a marriage if you were having children a son would be most desirable for you to have. You would be thought better of if you produced a son. This shows the male dominance in Chinese culture. Once a son was born the expectations for him were great. He was supposed to learn all great literature and be very scholarly (2). A girl, also was supp...

Promote Equality Essay

Promote Equality, Diversity and Inclusion in Work with Children and Young People 1.1 Identify the current legislation and codes of practice relevant to the promotion of equality and valuing of diversity The current codes of practice relevant to the promotion of equality and valuing of diversity are as follows:- Every Child Matters 2003 and Children Act 2004 updated in 2010 Help Children Achieve More – Organisations and agencies involved with children between birth and 19 years should ensure children to be Safe, Healthy, Enjoy and Achieve, Economic well-being and Positive contribution. Equality Act 2010 – Anti-discrimination legislation. To reinforce inclusion of any child regardless of disability or race.  SEN code of Practice 2001- The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001. Strengthened the rights of parents and SEN children to a main stream education.  Human Rights Act 1998 – Highlighted the principle that all humans have the same rights and should be treated equally.  UN Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 leads on from the Human Rights Act and sets out the rights of all children to be treated equally and fairly and without discrimination. 1.2 Explain the importance of promoting the rights of all children and young people to participation and equality of access It is important to promote the rights of all children and young adults to participation and equality of access for the reasons of:- A. Human Rights All children have a right to learn and play together. Children should not be discriminated against for any reason. Inclusion is concerned with improving schools for staff as well as pupils. B. Equal Opportunities in education Children do better in inclusive settings, both academically and socially. Children should not need to be separated to achieve adequate educational provision. Inclusive education is a more efficient use of educational resources. C. Social Opportunities Inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society. Children need to be involved and integrated with all of their peers. 1.3 Explain the importance and benefits of valuing and promoting cultural diversity in work with children and young people The benefits of valuing and promoting cultural diversity are that children will grow up in an environment which values cultural diversity and enables us to learn from one another. Children will also become used to finding out about other cultures and beliefs from an early age. In this way they will not grow up thinking that their own culture is the same as everyone else’s. Children from all backgrounds need to know that their culture and status is valued to help them feel settled and secure. This then contributes to their being able to learn. If they feel isolated or anxious, it is more likely that learning will be difficult for them.

Freedom Is Impossible For All While Some Remain Enslaved

14. Some have argued that freedom is impossible for all while some remain enslaved. Identify a specific example of modern slavery (timeframe, country, and people affected) and discuss how this affects our assumptions of ubiquitous liberty. Freedom is a fundamental birth right, which empowers people to speak, and do as they please without confinement or physical constraint. Freedom is the act of allowing an individual to act independently and choose independently, regardless of outside forces impeding on those choices and actions. Being examined, is the argument that freedom is possible for all, while some remain enslaved. Female Genital Mutilation abbreviated as FGM will be addressed as an example of modern day slavery. The history of†¦show more content†¦FGM is fundamentally cultural, and although there are some religious sentiments to the practice, there is no mention of FGM in the Sunnah nor the Quran. It is likely, FGM developed independently among specific ethnic groups as a means of puberty rites. Nevertheless, traditionally FGM ensures women’s virginity and extricates all female desire and sexuality. FGM is upheld by traditional values and principles. In countries including, Sierra Leone, and Kenya, FGM is culturally valued as a rite of passage to womanhood. Whereas, in Sudan, Somalia, and Egypt where marriage is fundamental to a woman’s social and economic survival, FGM is a precondition to marriage and is valued as a means of preserving a young girl’s virginity until she is married. FGM is a detrimental custom, guided by inter-generational attitudes. Uncircumcised young girls in these cultures is taboo. It is evident, FGM is entrenched in culture, and â€Å"we live in a world shaped by the culture to which we belong. We owe our very modes of thinking and assessment to it†¦chance too has a part in the events that confront us in our life and often stand in our way. We do not act in a vacuum and so we cannot be free in a vacuum†. Meaning, systematically, people have loss of freedom. FGM is oppressive through societal expectations and norms. Proponents may argue that FGM is traditional and necessary due to being aShow MoreRelatedNarrative Of The Life Of Frederick Douglass1730 Words   |  7 Pagesit.†2 His birth name was Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, which was given by his mother Harriet Bailey, who died when he was about 10 years old. At a young age, Douglass was picked to live in the home of a plantation owner Captain Anthony, whom some believe may have been his father. In his narrative that was published in 1845, sixteen years before the Civil War began, Douglass describes his life as a slave and his aspiration to become a free man. He describes the painful struggle to break freeRead MoreThe Death Of Harriet s Punishment1126 Words   |  5 Pagestimeline in which they are told. 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